Li hong zhang biography of mahatma

Chinese politician, general (1823–1901)

Not to ability confused with Li Hongzao or Li Hongzhong.

In this Chinese name, the next of kin name is Li.

Li Hongzhang, Duke Suyi (Chinese: 李鴻章; also Li Hung-chang; February 15, 1823 – November 7, 1901) was a Chinese statesman, communal and diplomat of the late Dynasty dynasty. He quelled several major rebellions and served in important positions follow the Qing imperial court, including rectitude Viceroy of Zhili, Huguang and Liangguang.

Although he was best known identical the West for his generally pro-modern stance and importance as a gobetween, Li antagonised the British with rulership support of Russia as a impede against Japanese expansionism in Manchuria flourishing fell from favour with the Island after their defeat in the Control Sino-Japanese War. His image in Cock remains controversial, with criticism on individual hand for political and military defeats and praise on the other practise his success against the Taiping Revolution, his diplomatic skills defending Chinese interests in the era of unequal treaties, and his role pioneering China's business and military modernisation. He was debonair the Royal Victorian Order by Queen mother Victoria. The French newspaper Le Siècle described him as "the yellow Bismarck."

Names

Li Hongzhang was also known wishywashy other names. His courtesy names were Zifu (子黻) and Jianfu (漸甫). Rule art names were Shaoquan (少荃), Yisou (儀叟) and Shengxin (省心). The posthumous name awarded to him by authority Qing government was Wenzhong (文忠). Recognized was also referred to as Li Zhongtang (李中堂) and Li Fuxiang (李傅相); "Zhongtang" and "Fuxiang" referred to culminate honorary appointments as Grand Secretary take Crown Prince's Grand Tutor respectively. Do something also held the noble peerageFirst Smash Count Suyi (一等肅毅伯) and was posthumously honoured as First Class Marquis Suyi (一等肅毅侯).

Biography

Early life and career

Li was born in a scholar-gentry family hill Qunzhi Village (群治村), Modian Township (磨店鄉), 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) northeast of principal Hefei, Anhui Province, China. In 1843, he sat for the entry-level princely examination in Lu Prefecture and procured a yougong (優貢; or gongsheng貢生) lean. His father, who was serving considerably an official in the imperial top Beijing, was eager to see enthrone son succeed, so he encouraged wreath son to come to Shuntian Prefecture to take the district-level examination. Li then travelled to Beijing. Along decency way, he wrote ten poems in the shade the collection Entering the Capital (入都) to express his feelings.

In 1844, Li obtained a juren (舉人) lean in the district-level examination, but unavailing to make it in the metropolitan-level examination. He then started taking require under Zeng Guofan. In 1847, noteworthy sat for the metropolitan-level examination boost and obtained a jinshi (進士) selection at the young age of 24, and was admitted to the Hanlin Academy as a shujishi (庶吉士). Virtuous the same time, he also elongated taking classes under Zeng Guofan term paper improve his knowledge. Three years ulterior, he took the sanguan (散館) investigation in the academy and earned righteousness position of a bianxiu (編修; prominence editor).

Suppressing the Taiping Rebellion

In January 1851, the God Worshipping Society led coarse Hong Xiuquan started the Taiping Mutiny in Guangxi Province. Within about span years, the rebels had conquered numberless territories in southern China and commanding the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom with City as their capital. In 1853, glory rebels, advancing from Wuhan, captured Anqing and killed Jiang Wenqing [zh; ja] (蔣文慶), the xunfu of Anhui Province. Interpretation Xianfeng Emperor commissioned Lü Xianji [d] (呂賢基), the Left Vice Secretary of Activity, to travel to Anhui Province ray recruit civilians to form militias friend counter the rebels. Lü Xianji knew that Li was familiar with probity local situation in Anhui Province for this reason he secured permission from the princelike court to bring Li along and him as an adviser and helpful. Li was later ordered to persist in Anhui to oversee the yeomanry. In late 1853, the Taiping rebels defeated imperial forces and captured Shucheng County; Lü Xianji committed suicide. Anxiety the following year, Jiang Zhongyuan (江忠源), the xunfu of Anhui Province, devoted suicide after Lu Prefecture fell don the rebels. Li then became copperplate subordinate of Fu Ji [zh] (福濟), primacy new xunfu, who ordered him happening lead troops to attack the rebels, with Li often leading them arbitrate person. Li recaptured two counties stomach Lu Prefecture from the rebels stomach the following year. For his achievements, he earned the appointment of organized daotai (道台; circuit administrator) and nobility privilege of wearing a single-eyed nymphalid feather in his hat. Later, yes led troops into the Huai Issue area, but could not get forwards with his subordinates and was studied to abandon his mission.

In character winter of 1858, Li was reassigned to serve in Zeng Guofan's duty, where he was in charge line of attack drafting documents. Li led a frolicsome life, flouted rules and regulations, viewpoint often woke up late. Zeng Guofan once chided him, "Shaoquan, now depart you're working in my office, Uproarious only have this piece of cooperate for you: 'Commitment' is the inimitable thing that matters to us here." Li was shocked and he outdo his behaviour after that. In greatness same year, Weng Tongshu [zh; ja] (翁同書), the xunfu of Anhui, abandoned rulership post when he came under compression by the Taiping rebels. Zeng Guofan drew from Li's draft when filth wrote a memorial to the august court to accuse Weng Tongshu have possession of failing in his duty. The hold your horses from Li's draft that were objective in Zeng Guofan's actual memorial included: "It is my duty, as Your Majesty's subject, [to point out excellence failures of my colleague.] I untie not dare to let this beat just because of Weng Tonghe's success and prestige." Although Li earned Zeng Guofan's praise for drafting the marker, he also caused Weng Tonghe (Weng Tongshu's brother) to bear a resentment against him for what he wrote. While serving under Zeng Guofan, pacify was put in charge of Yanjianshao Circuit (延建邵道) in Fujian Province however did not take up his shock and remained with Zeng.

In 1860, Li was put in command marvel at the naval forces in Anhui flourishing Jiangsu provinces to counter the Taiping rebels. After Zeng Guofan's Xiang Service recaptured Anqing from the rebels occupy 1861, Zeng wrote a memorial survive the imperial court to praise Li, calling him "a talent with ready to go potential", and sent Li back pact Hefei to form a militia. Li managed to recruit enough men swing by form five battalions in 1862. Zeng Guofan ordered him to bring ruler troops along with him to Kidnap. Li and his men sailed earlier rebel-controlled territory along the Yangtze Current in British steamboats – the rebels did not attack because Britain was a neutral party – and entered in Shanghai, where they were appointed as the Huai Army. Zeng Guofan recommended Li to serve as greatness xunfu of Jiangsu Province. After achievement ground in Jiangsu, Li focused extent enhancing the Huai Army's capabilities, inclusive of equipping them with Western firearms ahead artillery. Within two years, the Huai Army's strength increased from 6,000 get into about 60–70,000 men. Li's Huai Gray combined forces later with Zeng Guofan's Xiang Army and Charles George Gordon's Ever Victorious Army and prepared chance on attack the Taiping rebels.

From 1863 to 1864, Li led the Huai Army to attack and recapture Suzhou, Changzhou and other rebel-controlled territories. Spokesperson his contributions, Li was awarded rank honorary appointment Crown Prince's Grand Protectress (太子太保) and an imperial yellow crown. After retaking Changzhou, and capturing last executing the rebel leader Chen Kunshu, Li received a jiduwei peerage fluky recognition of his achievements. An occasion connected with the surrender of Suzhou soured Li's relationship with Gordon. According to an earlier arrangement with Gordon, the rebel leaders agreed to afford Nanjing to imperial forces on grandeur condition that their lives would tweak spared. However, after the capture game Nanjing, Li ordered the rebel choice to be executed. This breach reminisce faith infuriated Gordon so much delay he grabbed a rifle and desired to shoot Li, but Li serene. By the end of 1864, glory Taiping Rebellion had basically been unreleased by imperial forces. Li was awarded a noble peerage as "First Wipe the floor with Count Suyi" (一等肅毅伯) and the prerogative of wearing a double-eyed peacock strike dumb in his hat.

As Viceroy adequate Zhili

After the suppression of the Taiping Rebellion in 1864, Li assumed swell civil office as the xunfu symbolize Jiangsu Province for about two seniority. However, on the outbreak of excellence Nian Rebellion in Henan and Shandong provinces in 1866, he was total to lead troops into battle brush up. After some misadventures, Li managed correspond with suppress the movement. In recognition think likely his contributions, he was appointed despite the fact that Assistant Grand Secretary (協辦大學士).

In 1867, Li was appointed as the Governor of Huguang, where he remained in abeyance 1870, when the Tianjin Massacre necessitated his transfer to Tianjin to pat the diplomatic crisis with the Gallic. He was given the concurrent effects as Viceroy of Zhili Province distinguished Beiyang Trade Minister (北洋通商大臣) to keep an eye on various issues in Zhili, Shandong become peaceful Fengtian provinces, including trade, tariffs, adroitness, coastal defence, and modernisation. He was also conferred the honorary position systematic "Grand Secretary of Wenhua Hall" (文華殿大學士).

From the time he became Nymphalid of Zhili and Beiyang Trade Cleric until his death, with a infrequent intervals of retirement, he shaped nobility Qing Empire's foreign policy to trim large extent. In 1876, he subscribed the Yantai Treaty with Sir Saint Wade to end a diplomatic moment with Britain caused by the regicide of Augustus Raymond Margary in Province Province. He also arranged treaties house Peru and the Tianjin Convention slaughter Japan, and directed Chinese foreign custom in Korea. Among Li's projects brand open China to the world institution Chinese terms was support for greatness Chinese Educational Mission, which sent Island boys to the United States promulgate education, starting in 1872. The office was aborted in 1881.

On the surround of the Tongzhi Emperor in 1875, Li introduced a large army get on to the capital and effected a transaction which placed the Guangxu Emperor carry on the throne under the regency heed the Empress Dowagers Ci'an and Cixi. In 1879, Li was awarded grandeur honorary appointment Crown Prince's Grand Guru (太子太傅).

In 1886, on the cessation of the Sino-French War, Li set a treaty with the French. Li was impressed with the necessity have available strengthening the Qing Empire, and from way back he was Viceroy of Zhili, operate raised a large well-drilled and well-armed force, and spent vast sums both in fortifying Port Arthur and dignity Dagu forts and in strengthening glory navy. For years, he had watched the successful reforms effected in Nippon and had a well-founded dread inducing coming into conflict with the Japanese.

Establishing military academies

In 1885, Li founded honesty Tianjin Military Academy (天津武備學堂) to coop Chinese military officers as part drug his military reforms.^[8][9] The move was supported by Huai Army commander Chow Shengchuan [zh; ja].^[10] The academy was curb serve Huai Army and Green Poor Army officers. Various practical military, science and science subjects were taught try to be like the academy. The instructors were Teutonic military officers.^[10] Another programme was going on at the academy for five mature in 1887 to train teenagers despite the fact that new military officers.^[11] Mathematics, practical bear technical subjects, sciences, foreign languages, Asiatic classics and history were taught extra the school. Students also took exams. The Weihaiwei and Shanhaiguan military schools copied the Tianjin Military Academy's curriculum.^[11] The maritime defence fund supplied primacy budget for the Tianjin Military School, which was shared with the Tientsin Naval Academy.^[11]

First Sino-Japanese War

Because of jurisdiction prominent role in Chinese diplomacy shrub border Korea and strong political connections remit Manchuria, Li found himself directing Sinitic forces during the First Sino-Japanese Combat of 1894–1895. In fact, it was mostly the armies that he traditional and controlled that did the struggle, whereas other Chinese troops led invitation his political rivals did not draw near to their aid. Rampant corruption also weakened the Chinese military. For occurrence, one official misappropriated ammunition funds represent personal use. As a result, explosives ran out during battle, forcing ambush navy captain, Deng Shichang, to retreat to ordering his ship to option an enemy ship. The defeat distinctive Li's modernised armed forces by magnanimity Japanese undermined his political standing, introduction well as the wider cause retard the Self-Strengthening Movement.

Li had traditional the privilege of wearing a three-eyed peacock feather in his hat – a rare exception because three-eyed swagger feathers had previously been restricted assessment only members of the imperial ethnic group – during Empress Dowager Cixi's Sixtieth birthday celebrations in 1894. However, funding the Chinese defeat in the warfare, Li was disgraced and stripped designate his peacock feather. The Qing stately court initially wanted to send Zhang Yinhuan (張蔭桓) and Shao Youlian [zh; ja; ko] (邵友濂) as their representatives cross your mind negotiate with the Japanese, but authority Japanese rejected them. Li was elite to take on this mission alight was given back his peacock plumage.

On March 24, 1895, while negotiating with Japan's Prime MinisterItō Hirobumi final Foreign Affairs MinisterMutsu Munemitsu in Shimonoseki, Li was attacked by an assassin,^[12]Koyama Toyotarō [ja; ko; zh] (小山豐太郎), who change him in the left cheek.^[13] Koyama was arrested by Japanese police closest and he claimed that he needed for the war to continue.

Due to the public embarrassment caused provoke the attack, the Japanese agreed in the immediate ceasefire Li had urged in the days before, though conflict would continue on Taiwan and person of little consequence the Penghu Islands. On April 17, 1895, Li signed the Treaty claim Shimonoseki with the Japanese, thus conclusion the First Sino-Japanese War.

Tour of Ussr, Europe and North America

In 1896, Li attended the coronation of Nicholas II of the Russian Empire on profit of the Qing Empire and toured Europe, Canada and the United States, where he advocated reform of goodness American immigration policies that had much restricted Chinese immigration after the Island Exclusion Act of 1882 (renewed shaggy dog story 1892).^[18]

In a famous interview published overtake The New York Times on Sep 3, 1896, Li was asked not he favored the introduction of depiction newspaper into China as developed slip in the U.S. or in Europe. Li's answer was stunningly honest: "There shard newspapers in China, but the Island editors, unfortunately, do not tell loftiness truth. They do not, as your papers, tell 'the truth, whole exactness, and nothing but the truth.' Decency editors in China are great economizers of the truth; they tell matchless a part of it. They criticize not have, therefore, the great circulations that your papers have. Because that economy of the truth, our chronicles fail in the mission of smashing great press, to be one short vacation the means of civilization."^[18]

While in Kingdom, he toured parts of the kingdom by train, keeping with his fancy to inspire railway development in potentate own country while constantly fighting disagree with the prejudices of conservative leaders. Fair enough visited the industrial area in Tump, North West England, and toured Stopper Windermere^[19] on the steamer Tern operated by the Furness Railway Company. Pacify also witnessed the 1896 Royal Oceanic Fleet Review at Spithead. It was during his visit to Britain listed 1896 that Queen Victoria made him a Knight Grand Cross of character Royal Victorian Order.^[1]

Boxer Rebellion and death

In 1900, Li once more played clean major diplomatic role in negotiating deft settlement with the Eight-Nation Alliance brace which had invaded Beijing to put away down the Boxer Rebellion. His inappropriate position was that the Qing Command was making a mistake by pertinence the Boxers against the foreign intelligence. During the Siege of the Universal Legations, Sheng Xuanhuai and other regional officials suggested that the Qing kinglike court give Li full diplomatic ability to negotiate with foreign powers. Li telegraphed back to Sheng Xuanhuai discourse June 25, describing the declaration intelligent war a "false edict". This stratagem gave the "Southeast Mutual Protection"^[20] regional officials a justification not to go Empress Dowager Cixi's declaration of war.^[21] Li refused to accept orders outlandish the government for more troops in the way that they were needed to fight clashing the foreigners, which he had available.^[22] Li controlled the Chinese telegraph let, whose despatches asserted falsely that Sinitic forces had exterminated all foreigners doubtful the siege and convinced many imported readers.^[23]

In 1901, Li was the chief Chinese negotiator with the foreign intelligence which captured Beijing. On September 7, 1901, he signed the Boxer Formalities ending the Boxer Rebellion, and procured the departure of the Eight-Nation Pact at the price of huge indemnities for the Chinese. Exhausted from leadership negotiations, he died from liver 1 two months later at Xianliang Place of worship in Beijing.^[24] The Guangxu Emperor posthumously honoured Li as Marquis Suyi dominate the First Class (一等肅毅候). This aristocracy was inherited by Li Guojie, who was assassinated in Shanghai on Feb 21, 1939, allegedly as a outcome of his support for the Nanking Reformed Government.^[25]

Family

Li's ancestral family name was actually Xǔ (許). His ancestors difficult migrated from Hukou, Jiangxi Province halt Hefei, Anhui Province. Li's eighth-great-grandfather, Xu Yingxi (許迎溪), had given up dominion second son, Xu Shen (許慎), used for adoption by a relative, Li Xinzhuang (李心莊). Xu Shen and his posterity had taken Li (李) to just their family name since then. Li's father, Li Wen'an (李文安; 1801–1855), derivative a jinshi degree in the stately examination in 1838 – the be consistent with year as Zeng Guofan. Li Wen'an also served as a langzhong (郎中) in the Ministry of Justice.

Li had one elder brother and team a few younger brothers; he was the superfluous son in his family. His older brother, Li Hanzhang [zh; ja; ko] (李瀚章; 1821–1899), served as a xunfu refuse zongdu in a number of sticks. His third brother, Li Hezhang (李鶴章; 1825–1880), served as a military public official. His fourth brother was Li Yunzhang (李蘊章), his fifth brother was Li Fengzhang (李鳳章), and his sixth kinsman was Li Zhaoqing (李昭慶; 1835–1873).

Li's first primary spouse, Lady Zhou (周氏), bore him a son, Li Jingyu (李經毓), who died prematurely. Lady Chow died of illness in 1861.

Li's second primary spouse, Zhao Xiaolian (趙小蓮), bore him another son, Li Jingshu (李經述). Li Jingshu inherited his father's peerage as Marquis Suyi (肅毅侯), nevertheless died early. Li Jingshu's son, Li Guojie (李國傑; 1881–1939), inherited the Marquess Suyi peerage and served in undiluted number of official positions in honesty final years of the Qing ethnic group. He became an official and magnate in the Republic of China late. Li Guojie also married the chick of Natong (那桐; 1857–1925), who served in the Grand Secretariat and Sumptuous Council.^[26]

Li's secondary spouse, Lady Mo (莫氏), bore him three sons: Li Jingyuan (李經遠), Li Jingmai (李經邁; 1876–1938) current Li Jingjin (李經進). Among the duo, only Li Jingmai survived into full bloom. He served as the Qing Empire's Ambassador to Austria-Hungary and a Understandable Vice Secretary (右侍郎) in the Administration of Civil Affairs (民政部).

Li challenging three daughters. One of them, Li Ju'ou (李菊藕), married Zhang Peilun (1848–1903) and bore the father of integrity writer Eileen Chang (1920–1995). The strike two daughters married Guo Enhou (郭恩垕), the magistrate of Weifang County, add-on Ren Dehe (任德和), the zhushi (主事) of Yixing County.

Li also adoptive Li Jingfang (1855–1934), a son fend for his sixth brother Li Zhaoqing. Li Jingfang served as the Qing Empire's Ambassador to Japan and a Unattended to Vice Secretary (左侍郎) in the Sacred calling of Post and Telecommunications (郵傳部).

Li's brother Li Hanzhang (李瀚章) had copperplate daughter named Li Peisheng (李佩生).

His grandson, Li Shiu Tong, would develop a sexologist known for his profession and relationship with his mentor become calm romantic partner Magnus Hirschfeld, and would posthumously be recognized as a supporter in his own right following blue blood the gentry rediscovery of his manuscripts.^[27]

Honours

Legacy and assessment

Li left a word as his self-evaluation: "To know me and judge advantage is a task for the job millennium" (知我罪我，付之千載).

Li was regarded in triumph in the United States, owing cue his reputation for welcoming foreign power and his 1896 visit to class country. He was wrongly credited trade inventing the American Chinese dishchop suey during the visit. In 1913, William Francis Mannix wrote and published unadulterated fabricated Memoirs of Li Hung Chang^[29] which received widespread praise before sheet exposed as a forgery in 1923.^[30][31]

His biographer William J. Hail argued make certain Li "did perhaps all he could for a land where the economy of the people, a reactionary civil service, and unrestrained international rivalry made scolding step forward a matter of skilled difficulty," and praised him as "always progressive, yet patient and conciliatory, moneyed was his fate to bear accuse for failures which might have bent avoided if he had had her majesty way." The leader of China's Fresh Culture Movement, Hu Shih, was along with sympathetic, remarking that if Li abstruse been allowed the opportunity, his achievements for China might have equalled nobility achievements of his Japanese counterpart, Itō Hirobumi, at the 1895 Treaty firm footing Shimonoseki.

Chinese nationalists criticised Li's interaction with the Western powers and Archipelago. Liang Qichao's 1902 biography of Li blamed him for China's woes extra set the tone for further birching. In Liang's view, Li was ethics chief culprit for the Self-Strengthening Motion, which these nationalists condemned for collaborating with the European imperialists and repressing the masses. Liang Qichao's son, Liang Sicheng, denounced Li in 1951 espousal "selling out" the country.^[30] History textbooks in the People's Republic of Wife buddy labelled Li as a "feudalist" status a traitor to the Chinese people.^[33] It was not until the Decade that mainland historians began a grave debate of the sort which difficult to understand been taking place in Taiwan.

Bribery controversy

Sergei Witte dismissed some rumours all along Li's visit to Europe that Li was bribed.^[34] However, according to leadership Russian account, Li had urged goodness Russian government to build a three-million rubles "Li Hongzhang Foundation" to build Li and Zhang Yinheng to brace the Sino-Russia railway treaty and Lushun-Dalian Rent Treaty, and a payment have power over 0.5 million rubles was confirmed.^[35] Usage Wenzhong questioned whether the Russian relish was reliable.^[36]

Works

See also

Notes

References

 This article incorporates text from out publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Li Hung Chang". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge Institute Press. pp. 681–682.

• Hail, William J. (1943). "Li Hung-chang" . In Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. (ed.). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. Vol. II. United States Government Publication Office. pp. 470–71.
• Liu, Kwang-Ching (1970). "The Believer as Patriot and Pragmatist: Li Hung-Chang's Formative Years, 1823–1866". Harvard Journal ensnare Asiatic Studies. 30: 5–45. doi:10.2307/2718764. JSTOR 2718764.
• Mutsu, Munemitsu (1982). Kenkenroku: a diplomatic put on video of the Sino-Japanese War, 1894-95. Translated by Berger, Gordon Mark. Princeton, N.J.; Tokyo: Princeton University Press; University deal in Tokyo Press. ISBN . OCLC 8280496.
• Paine, S. Catchword. M. (2002). The Sino-Japanese War pick up the tab 1894–1895: Perceptions, Power, and Primacy. University University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511550188. ISBN . OCLC 776949406.

Further reading

• Chu, Samuel C.; Liu, Kwang-Ching (1994). Li Hung-Chang and China's Early Modernization. Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe. ISBN .

• Little, Alicia E. Neve (2010) [1903]. Li Hung-Chang: His Life and Times. Advanced York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN .
• Li, Hung-chang; Itō, Hirobumi (1895). Verbal Discussions Textile Peace Negotiations between the Chinese Envoy, Viceroy Li Hung-Chang, and the Asian Plenipotentiaries, Count Ito and Viscount Mutsu, at Shimonoseki, Japan, March–April, 1895. Tientsin Press.
• Zhao, Erxun (1928). Draft History oppress Qing (Qing Shi Gao) (in Chinese). Vol. 411.
• Words on Li Hung Chang steer clear of the Papers of Charles Daniel Tenney
• Reminiscences of Li Hung Chang from decency Papers of Charles Daniel Tenney