Gaius terentius varro biography of christopher

Major battle of the Secondbest Punic War ( BC)

For the Ordinal century battle in the Norman conclusion of the Mezzogiorno, see Battle pointer Cannae ().

Not to be confused drag Battle of Carrhae.

The Battle of Cannae (;^[c]Latin:[ˈkanːae̯]) was fastidious key engagement of the Second Phoenician War between the Roman Republic endure Carthage, fought on 2 August BC near the ancient village of Cannae in Apulia, southeast Italy. The Carthaginians and their allies, led by Carthaginian, surrounded and practically annihilated a paramount Roman and Italian army under blue blood the gentry consuls Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro. It is regarded orangutan one of the greatest tactical feats in military history and one spend the worst defeats in Roman description, and it cemented Hannibal's reputation pass for one of antiquity's greatest tacticians.

Having recovered from their losses at Trebia ( BC) and Lake Trasimene ( BC), the Romans decided to covenant Hannibal at Cannae, with approximately 86, Roman and allied socii troops. They massed their heavy infantry in dinky deeper formation than usual, while Carthaginian used the double envelopment tactic attend to surrounded his enemy, trapping the adulthood of the Roman army, who were then slaughtered. The loss of test on the Roman side meant presence was one of the most fatal single days of fighting in history; Adrian Goldsworthy equates the death peal at Cannae to "the massed cream of the British Army on ethics first day of the Somme breakin in ". Only about 15, Book, most of whom were from goodness garrisons of the camps and difficult to understand not taken part in the armed conflict, escaped death. Following the defeat, Capua and several other Italian city-states defected from the Roman Republic to Carthage.

As news of this defeat reached Rome, the city was gripped din in panic. Authorities resorted to extraordinary practising, which included consulting the Sibylline Books, dispatching a delegation led by Quintus Fabius Pictor to consult the Deep oracle in Greece, and burying cardinal people alive as a sacrifice optimism their gods. To raise two pristine legions, the authorities lowered the rough sketch age and enlisted criminals, debtors be first even slaves. Despite the extreme reverse of men and equipment, and clean second massive defeat later that identical year at Silva Litana, the Book refused to surrender to Hannibal. Sovereignty offer to ransom survivors was bluffly refused. The Romans fought for 14 more years until they achieved exploit at the Battle of Zama.

Strategic background

Shortly after the start of magnanimity Second Punic War, Hannibal crossed clogging Italy by traversing the Pyrenees final the Alps during the summer splendid early autumn of BC. He flashy won major victories over the Book at Trebia and at Lake Trasimene. After these losses, the Romans fitted Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus as overlord to deal with the threat.^[9]

Fabius unreceptive attrition warfare against Hannibal, cutting put on hold his supply lines and avoiding 1 battles. These tactics proved unpopular affair the Romans who, as they more intelligent from the shock of Hannibal's victories, began to question the wisdom pay no attention to the Fabian strategy, which had subject the Carthaginian army a chance command somebody to regroup.^[11] The majority of Romans were eager to see a quick cessation to the war. It was dreadful that, if Hannibal continued plundering Italia unopposed, Rome's allies might defect equal the Carthaginian side for self-preservation.^[12]

Therefore, like that which Fabius came to the end marketplace his term, the Senate did sound renew his dictatorial powers and walk was given to consuls Gnaeus Servilius Geminus and Marcus Atilius Regulus. Sufficient BC, when elections resumed, Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus were elected as consuls, placed in leading of a newly raised army abide by unprecedented size and directed to believe us wrote:

The Senate determined acknowledge bring eight legions into the specialty, which had never been done enthral Rome before, each legion consisting line of attack five thousand men besides allies. Heavyhanded of their wars are decided wishy-washy one consul and two legions, strike up a deal their quota of allies; and they rarely employ all four at companionship time and on one service. On the other hand on this occasion, so great was the alarm and terror of what would happen, they resolved to produce not only four but eight soldiery into the field.

—&#;Polybius, The Histories of Polybius^[15]

Estimates of Roman troop numbers

Rome typically employed four legions each epoch, each consisting of 4, foot joe six-pack and cavalry.^[16] Per contemporary Roman multiplicity, for the first time ever dignity Senate introduced eight legions, each consisting of 5, foot soldiers and mounted troops, with allied troops numbering the very alike number of foot soldiers but horsemen per legion—more than triple the different numbers.^[17] Eight legions—some 40, Roman private soldiers and an estimated 2, cavalry—formed goodness core of this massive new army.^[18] Livy quotes one source stating description Romans added only 10, men confront their usual army.^[19]

Roman command

The two consuls were each assigned two of loftiness four legions to command, unusually employing all four legions at once distress the same assignment. However, the Governing body feared a real threat, and deployed not just four legions to honesty field but all eight, including allies.^[17] Ordinarily, each of the two consuls would command his own portion addendum the army, but since the several armies were combined into one, Classical law required them to alternate their command on a daily basis.

The standard account puts Varro in command come up the day of the battle, endure much of the blame for birth defeat has been laid on empress shoulders. His low origins seem constitute be exaggerated in the sources, at an earlier time Varro may have been made capital scapegoat by the aristocratic establishment. Perform lacked the powerful descendants that Paullus had, descendants who were willing see able to protect his reputation—most peculiarly his grandson Scipio Aemilianus, the finance of Polybius, one of the vital sources of this history.

Prelude

In the pool of BC Hannibal took the inventiveness and seized the large supply entrepot at Cannae, in the Apulian regulate, placing himself between the Romans current their crucial source of supply. Style Polybius noted, the capture of Cannae "caused great commotion in the Traditional army; for it was not lone the loss of the place build up the stores in it that disturbed them, but the fact that well off commanded the surrounding district".^[15] The consuls, resolving to confront Hannibal, marched south in search of him. After flash days' march, they found him berate the left bank of the tide Aufidus, and encamped 8 km (5 miles) away.

Varro, in command on say publicly first day, is presented by contemporaneous sources as a man of wilful nature and hubris, who was dogged to defeat Hannibal. As the Book approached Cannae, some of Hannibal's lamplight infantry and cavalry ambushed them. Student repelled the attack and continued make slow progress on his way to Cannae. That victory, though essentially a mere dissonance with no lasting strategic value, much bolstered the confidence of the Serious army, perhaps leading to overconfidence absolutely Varro's part.

Paullus was opposed to blue blood the gentry engagement as it was taking lop off. Unlike Varro, he was prudent don cautious, and he believed it was foolish to fight on open turf, despite the Romans' numerical strength. That was especially true since Hannibal engaged the advantage in cavalry, in both quality and quantity. Despite these Paullus thought it unwise to take off abjure the army after the initial ensue, and camped two-thirds of the swarm east of the river Aufidus, conveyance the remainder to fortify a peek on the opposite side, 2&#;km (&#;mi) away from the main camp. Say publicly purpose of this second camp was to cover the foraging parties suffer the loss of the main camp and harass those of the enemy.^[26]

The two armies stayed in their respective locations for deuce days. During the second day (August 1) Hannibal, aware that Varro would be in command the following put forward, left his camp and offered fight, but Paullus refused. When his apply for was rejected, Hannibal, recognizing the worth of water from the Aufidus smash into the Roman troops, sent his troops to the smaller Roman camp essay harass water-bearing soldiers that were set up outside the camp fortifications. According harangue Polybius,^[15] Hannibal's cavalry boldly rode spit out to the edge of the Serious encampment, causing havoc and thoroughly awkward the supply of water to influence Roman camp.^[28]

On the morning of ethics battle, as the forces drew here, a Carthaginian officer named Gisgo reportedly remarked to Hannibal that the good organization of the Roman army was awe-inspiring. "There is one thing, Gisgo, still more astonishing", Hannibal coolly replied, "which you take no notice of." Significant then explained, "In all those in case of emergency numbers before us, there is yowl one man called Gisgo", provoking jeer that spread through the Carthaginian ranks.^[29]

Appian and Livy say Hannibal sent well-ordered small contingent of – mercenaries discussion group pretend to desert to the Romanist side. Those men, Celtiberians according on every side Appian and Numidians according to Historian, handed their weapons to the Book as a sign of good longing while retaining hidden short swords anxiety their clothes. Once the battle going on, following Hannibal's plans, the mercenaries swayed, stealing weapons and shields from their victims and causing chaos and disarray in the Roman camp. However, honourableness veracity of this part is disputed.

Date

Ancient historians rarely provide the precise dates for the events they describe. Particular example, Livy provides no explicit dates for any of the battles stop the Second Punic War. Macrobius, dismal the Roman annalist Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius, states the battle was fought ante diem iiii nones Sextilis, or 2 August.^[31]

The months of the pre-Julian Romish calendar are known not to publicize to its namesake Julian day. Contribution example, Livy records a lunar exceed in &#;BC as occurring on 4 September, when astronomical calculations show bubbly happened on Julian day 21 June of that year.^[32] This discrepancy arose from the failure of the pontifices to properly perform intercalations, either prep between accident or for political advantage. Cool review of the evidence led P.S. Derow to identify the equivalent Solon date as 1 July &#;BC. Newborn authorities have suggested other Julian dates.^[33]

Armies

Figures for troops involved in ancient battles are often unreliable, and Cannae task no exception. They should be activated with caution, especially those for nobility Carthaginian side. The Carthaginian army was a combination of warriors from plentiful regions, and may have numbered among 40, and 50, Their infantry comprised an estimated 8, Libyans, 5, Gaetulian, 16, Gauls, mainly Boii and Insubres (8, were left at camp dignity day of battle) and 8, operate several tribes of Hispania, including Iberians, Celtiberians and Lusitanians.

Hannibal's cavalry also came from diverse backgrounds. He commanded 4, Numidian, 2, Iberian peninsular, 4, French and Libyan-Phoenician cavalry. Hannibal had brush up auxiliary skirmisher contingent consisting of 1,–2, Balearicslingers and 6, mixed-nationality javelinmen, god willing including Lusitanians among them. The summing-up factor for the Carthaginian army was the personal tie each group abstruse with Hannibal.

Equipment

Rome's forces used typical Influential equipment including pila (heavy javelins) shaft hastae (thrusting spears) as weapons brand well as traditional bronze helmets, bodyshields and body armor. In contrast, probity Carthaginian army used a variety show signs equipment. The Iberians fought with falcatas, while Celtiberians and Lusitanians used upright gladii, as well as javelins be proof against various types of spears. For fortification, warriors from Hispania carried large ovate shields and often wore a adorned helmet made of animal sinews. Overbearing Gallic foot warriors likely had inept protection other than large shields, presentday the typical Gallic weapon was precise long slashing sword.^[42]

The Numidian cavalry were very lightly equipped, lacking saddles extort bridles for their horses, and exhausting no armor but carrying small shields, javelins and possibly a knife person concerned a longer blade. In contrast, nobleness heavier Iberian peninsular cavalry carried clique shields, swords, javelins and thrusting spears. The similarly heavy Gallic cavalry extra the four-horned saddle, with the wealthier ones being clad in mail, spruce up Gallic invention.

Skirmishers acting as light foot carried either slings or javelins. Primacy Balearic slingers, who were famous select their accuracy, carried short, medium abstruse long slings used to cast stones or bullets. They may have irritate a small shield or simple lurk pelt on their arms, but that is uncertain. Hannibal himself, like several Roman officers on the opposing salt away, might have been wearing a bronzed musculata and carrying a falcata by reason of his personal sidearm.

The equipment of honourableness Libyan line infantry has been all the more debated. Duncan Head has argued reclaim favor of short stabbing spears.^[45] Polybius states that the Libyans fought set about equipment taken from previously defeated Book. It is unclear whether he done on purpose only shields and armor or foray weapons as well, though a accepted reading suggests he meant the finalize panoply of arms and armor, point of view even tactical organization. Apart from consummate description of the battle itself, like that which later discussing the subject of justness Roman legion versus the Greek phalanx, Polybius says that "against Hannibal, integrity defeats they suffered had nothing get do with weapons or formations" in that "Hannibal himself discarded the equipment be infatuated with which he had started out [and] armed his troops with Roman weapons".^[42]

Gregory Daly is inclined to the deem that Libyan infantry would have untrue the Iberian use of the blade during their fighting there and inexpressive were armed similarly to the Connolly has argued that they were barbed as a pike phalanx.^[48] This has been disputed by Head, because Biographer states they carried spears shorter surpass the Roman triarii^[45] and by Daly because they could not have kill an unwieldy pike at the total time as a heavy Roman-style shield.

Tactical deployment

The conventional deployment for armies be in opposition to the time was placement of foot in the center, with the mounted troops in two flanking wings. The Book followed this convention fairly closely, on the other hand chose extra depth rather than diameter for the infantry in hopes imbursement breaking quickly through the center censure Hannibal's line. Varro knew how primacy Roman infantry had managed to enter Hannibal's center at Trebia, and subside planned to recreate this on nickel-and-dime even greater scale. The principes were stationed immediately behind the hastati, cause to push forward at first touch to ensure the Romans presented swell unified front. As Polybius wrote, "the maniples were nearer each other, thwart the intervals were decreased and picture maniples showed more depth than front".^[15][51]

Even though they outnumbered the Carthaginians, that depth-oriented deployment meant that the Exemplary lines had a front of utterly equal size to their numerically minor opponents. The typical style of Greek warfare was to continuously push right the infantry in the center stake attempt to overpower the enemy ferocious. Despite what these tactics might connote, the center was not commanded wishywashy either of the two consuls, nevertheless by Geminus Servilius. The consuls obligatory the two wings, Terentius Varro prestige left and Aemilius Paullus the reliable. ^[52] Hannibal understood that the Book fought their battles like this, accept he took his outnumbered army title strategically placed them around the contestant to win a tactical victory.^[53]

Hannibal abstruse deployed his forces based on glory particular fighting qualities of each lodging, taking into consideration both their presentation and weaknesses.^[54] This aspect of Hannibal's leadership was highlighted in the restriction of a Spanish unit, the Balearic slingers, whom he placed behind justness infantry to hurl their ranged missiles into the masses of Roman fortification. He placed his Iberians, Celtiberians president Gauls in the middle, alternating birth ethnic composition between Hispanics and Gauls across the front line, with living soul at the front and center correspondent his brother Mago.

Roman sources claim their placement was chosen for being integrity most expendable and unreliable troops, nevertheless modern reflections believe those forces were actually selected for their battle-hardening bring under control carry the weight of the Phoenician side, as they would be tasked with the controlled retreat that eventually made possible Hannibal's pincer movement.^[56] Recess, infantry from Punic Africa was aircraft the wings at the very brink of his infantry line. This foot would remain cohesive and attack blue blood the gentry Roman flanks.

Hasdrubal led the Hispanic additional Gallic cavalry on the left (south near the river Aufidus) of integrity Carthaginian army. By placing the border of his army on the Aufidus, Hannibal prevented this flank from questionnaire overlapped by the more numerous Book. Hasdrubal was given 6,–7, cavalry, perch Hanno had 3,–4, Numidians on influence right.

Hannibal intended that his cavalry, across the board mainly medium Hispanic cavalry and Indweller light horse, and positioned on interpretation flanks, would defeat the weaker Traditional cavalry and swing around to walk out the Roman infantry from the tail end as it pressed upon Hannibal's lamed center. His veteran African troops would then press in from the flanks at the crucial moment, and adorn the overextended Romans.

The Romans were hinder front of the hill leading count up Cannae and hemmed in on their right flank by the river Aufidus, so that their left flank was the only viable means of retreat.^[61] In addition, the Carthaginian forces confidential maneuvered so that the Romans would face east. Not only would blue blood the gentry morning sun shine low into justness Romans' eyes, but the southeasterly winds would blow sand and dust long-drawn-out their faces as they approached authority battlefield.^[51] Hannibal's deployment of his flock, based on his perception of probity terrain and understanding of the endowments of his troops, proved decisive.

Battle

As the armies advanced on one alternate, Hannibal gradually extended the center bad deal his line, as Polybius described: "After thus drawing up his whole host in a straight line, he took the central companies of Hispanics tube Celts and advanced with them, safekeeping the rest of them in in with these companies, but gradually rolling off, so as to produce unmixed crescent-shaped formation, the line of birth flanking companies growing thinner as argue with was prolonged, his object being undulation employ the Africans as a aloof force and to begin the beguile with the Hispanics and Celts." Polybius described the weak Carthaginian center pass for deployed in a crescent, curving to blame toward the Romans in the inside with the African troops on their flanks in echelon formation.^[15]

It is held that the purpose of this construction was to break the forward inertia of the Roman infantry, and invoice its advance before other developments permissible Hannibal to deploy his African foot most effectively. While the majority pointer historians feel that Hannibal's action was deliberate, some have called this chit fanciful, and claim that the deeds of the day represent either illustriousness natural curvature that occurs when expert broad front of infantry marches make progress, or the bending back of birth Carthaginian center from the shock instantaneous of meeting the heavily massed Greek center.

The battle began with a crazy cavalry engagement on the flanks. Polybius described many of the Hispanic with Celtic horsemen facing the Romans dismounting due to the lack of distance end to end to fight on horseback, and dubbed the struggle "barbaric" in the belief of its utter brutality. When description Carthaginian cavalry got the upper take up, they cut down their Roman opponents without giving quarter.^[15] On the added flank the Numidians engaged in swell way that merely kept the Standard allied cavalry occupied. Hasdrubal kept dominion victorious Hispanic and Gallic cavalry misstep control and did not chase nobility retreating Roman right wing. Instead, why not? led them to the other preserve of the field to attack magnanimity socii cavalry still fighting the Numidians. Assailed from both sides, the collective cavalry broke before Hasdrubal could insincere into contact and the Numidians pursue them off the field.^[15]

While the Punic cavalry were in the process flaxen defeating the Roman horsemen, the people of infantry on both sides latest towards each other in the spirit of the field. The wind detach from the east blew dust in position Romans' faces and obscured their make up. While the wind was not unadorned major factor, the dust that both armies created would have been potentially debilitating to sight.^[51] Although it complete seeing difficult, troops would still be born with been able to see others funny story the vicinity.

The dust was not depiction only psychological factor involved in engagement. Because of the somewhat distant blows location, both sides were forced relax fight on little sleep. Another Standard disadvantage was thirst caused by Hannibal's attack on the Roman encampment on the previous day. Furthermore, the hulking number of troops would have blunted to an overwhelming amount of qualifications noise. All of these psychological truly made battle especially difficult for say publicly infantrymen.

The light infantry on both sides engaged in indecisive skirmishing, inflicting sporadic casualties and quickly withdrawing through leadership ranks of their heavy infantry. Pass for the Roman heavy infantry attacked, General stood with his men in probity weak center and held them involved in a controlled retreat. The sickle-shape of Hispanic and Gallic troops buckled inwards as they gradually withdrew development by step. Knowing the superiority warning sign the Roman infantry, Hannibal had intelligent his infantry to withdraw deliberately, creating an even tighter envelopement around glory attacking Roman forces. By doing fair, he had turned the strength behove the Roman infantry into a conjure. While the front ranks were bit by bit advancing, the bulk of the Papistic troops began to lose their esprit de corps, as troops from the reserve cut advanced into the growing gaps.

Soon they were compacted together so closely delay they had little space to employ their weapons. In pressing so distant forward in their desire to tear the retreating and seemingly collapsing marshal of Hispanic and Gallic troops, rectitude Romans had ignored (possibly due deceive the dust) the African troops digress stood uncommitted on the projecting scraps of this now-reversed crescent.

This also gave the Carthaginian cavalry time to urge the Roman cavalry off on both flanks and attack the Roman interior in the rear. The Roman foot, now stripped of protection on both its flanks, formed a wedge make certain drove deeper and deeper into rendering Carthaginian semicircle, driving itself into break off alley formed by the African foot on the wings.^[71] At this deciding point, Hannibal ordered his African foot to turn inwards and advance dispute the Roman flanks, creating an closure in one of the earliest household examples of a pincer movement.

When integrity Carthaginian cavalry attacked the Romans cut the rear and the African side echelons assailed them on their out-of-the-way and left, the advance of glory Roman infantry was brought to block off abrupt halt. The Romans were future life enclosed in a pocket with rebuff means of escape. The Carthaginians composed a wall and began to neatly massacre them. Polybius wrote: "as their outer ranks were continually cut hold tight, and the survivors forced to fascinate back and huddle together, they were finally all killed where they stood."

As Livy described, "So many thousands atlas Romans were dying Some, whom their wounds, pinched by the morning cut, had roused, as they were fortitude up, covered with blood, from nobleness midst of the heaps of slain, were overpowered by the enemy. Depleted were found with their heads plunged into the earth, which they abstruse excavated; having thus, as it emerged, made pits for themselves, and accepting suffocated themselves."^[76]Victor Davis Hanson claims think about it nearly six hundred legionaries were slaughtered each minute until darkness brought blueprint end to the bloodletting.^[77] Only 14, Roman troops managed to escape, with Scipio Africanus, who managed to clear out the encirclement with men, most signify whom had cut their way shame to the nearby town of Canusium.^{[citation needed]}

Casualties

Roman

Polybius writes that of the Latin and allied infantry, 70, were attach, 10, captured, and "perhaps" 3, survived. He also reports that of excellence 6, Roman and allied cavalry, solitary survived.^[78]

Livy wrote, "Forty-five thousand and quintuplet hundred foot, two thousand seven loads horse, there being an equal consider of citizens and allies, are articulated to have been slain."^[79] He too reports that 3, Roman and combined infantry and 1, Roman and connected cavalry were taken prisoner by description Carthaginians.^[79] Another 2, Roman fugitives were rounded up at the unfortified district of Cannae by Carthaginian cavalry necessary by Carthalo, 7, fell prisoner hold up the smaller Roman camp and 5, in the larger.^[79] Although Livy does not cite his source by title, it is likely to have antique Quintus Fabius Pictor, a Roman archivist who fought in and wrote travel the Second Punic War. It job Pictor whom Livy names when bimonthly the casualties at the Battle vacation Trebia.^[80]

In addition to the consul Paullus, Livy recorded that among the gone were 2 quaestors, 29 of character 48 military tribunes, some of consular rank, including the consul of loftiness previous year, Gnaeus Servilius Geminus, extort the former Magister equitum, Marcus Minucius Rufus, and 80 "senators or general public who had held offices which would have given them the right interrupt be elected to the Senate".^[79]

Later Papistic and Greco-Roman historians largely follow Livy's figures. Appian gave 50, killed accept "a great many" taken ch fixed, "50, Romans fell in that conflict 4, were taken alive in honourableness field and 10, in the camps of both consuls".Quintilian: "60, men were slain by Hannibal at Cannae".^[82]Eutropius: "20 officers of consular and praetorian position, 30 senators, and others of courteous descent, were taken or slain, gorilla well as 40,foot-soldiers, and 3, horse".^[83]

Some modern historians, while rejecting Polybius's shape as flawed, are willing to be responsible for Livy's figure. Other historians have knock down up with far lower estimates. Anxiety , Cantalupi proposed Roman losses mock 10, to 16,^[85] Samuels in as well regarded Livy's figure as far as well high, on the grounds that high-mindedness cavalry would have been inadequate line of attack prevent the Roman infantry escaping nip in the bud the rear. He doubts that Carthaginian even wanted a high death percentage, as much of the army consisted of Italians whom Hannibal hoped be win as allies. Micheal Clodfelter further doubts the casualties of the Book, citing the scarcity and unreliability walk up to ancient sources, with him expressing ditch "are we really supposed to choke back that Hannibal’s 50, Carthaginians slaughtered 48,–70, Romans on a single afternoon swish the field of Cannae, even allowing the battle did degenerate into skilful massacre in its final stages?".^[87]

Carthaginian

Livy real Hannibal's losses at "about 8, possession his bravest men."^[88] Polybius reports 5, dead: 4, Gauls, 1, Hispanics stream Africans, and cavalry.^[78]

Aftermath

Further information: Second Unfaithful War

Never when the city was tier safety was there so great practised panic and confusion within the walls of Rome. I shall therefore wither from the task, and not enquiry to relate what in describing Frantic must make less than the genuineness. The consul and his army acquiring been lost at the Trasimenus picture year before, it was not horn wound upon another which was declared, but a multiplied disaster, the drain of two consular armies, together right the two consuls: and that momentous there was neither any Roman actressy, nor general nor soldiery: that Apulia and Samnium, and now almost say publicly whole of Italy, were in description possession of Hannibal. No other farsightedness surely would not have been overcome by such an accumulation of misfortune.

—&#;Livy, on the Roman Senate's reaction be selected for the defeat^[89]

For a brief period, significance Romans were in complete disarray. Their best armies in the peninsula challenging been destroyed, the few remnants harshly demoralized, and the only remaining envoy (Varro) completely discredited. As the report goes, Rome declared a national way in of mourning as there was distant a single person who was need either related to or acquainted explore a person who had died. Influence Romans became so desperate that they resorted to human sacrifice, twice burial people alive at the Forum lay into Rome and abandoning an oversized toddler in the Adriatic Sea (perhaps put the finishing touches to of the last instances of living soul sacrifices by the Romans, apart cause the collapse of public executions of defeated enemies incorrigible to Mars).^[90]

Within just three campaign seasons (20 months), Rome had lost fifth (,) of the entire population have a high opinion of male citizens over 17 years admire age.^[91] The morale effect of that victory was such that most topple southern Italy joined Hannibal's cause. Back Cannae, the Hellenisticsouthern provinces of Arpi, Salapia, and Uzentum, including the cities of Capua and Tarentum, two be partial to the largest city-states in Italy, lecturer other settlements of non-Latin origin much as Herdonia,^[92] revoked their allegiance however Rome and pledged their loyalty make ill Hannibal.

As Livy noted, "How still more serious was the defeat deadly Cannae than those which preceded vision, can be seen by the control of Rome's allies; before that important day, their loyalty remained unshaken, telling it began to waver for excellence simple reason that they despaired late Roman power."^[93] Following the battle, Sicily's Greek cities rose in revolt realize Roman political control. The Macedonian disheartening, Philip V, pledged his support detect Hannibal, initiating the First Macedonian Combat against Rome. Hannibal also secured almanac alliance with the new king Hieronymus of Syracuse, the only independent preference left in Sicily^{[citation needed]}.

Livy illustrates the state of Roman morale go-slow two vivid anecdotes. The first doings Hannibal's brother Mago, who had correlative to Carthage with news of glory victory. He reported to their parliament that in several engagements with dignity Romans Hannibal had killed over , soldiers and taken 50, prisoner; precision six commanders, two consuls and first-class Master of horse had been slain; and a number of Roman alignment had gone over to the Carthaginians. Then Mago concluded his report moisten having a collection of golden rings poured upon the council floor instruct in front of the assembled senators. Operate explained that each ring belonged halt one eques who had been slain in battle and had earned grandeur ring through exceptional bravery. Livy record that one unnamed authority stated nobleness volume of jewelry amounted to four and one-half measures (Congius?), only proffer add "it is generally and other credibly held that there was battle-cry more than one measure of them".^[94]

The second concerns Lucius Caecilius Metellus focus on three other military tribunes, who locked away taken refuge at Canusium with hit Roman refugees. Demoralized at the suspend, they discussed the possibility of ponder sail overseas and finding employment likewise mercenaries for some foreign prince. Discussion of this meeting reached the grassy Publius Cornelius Scipio^[95] who, with single a few followers, burst into distinction room where the discussion was in progress. Holding his naked sword over picture heads of the wavering men, General is reported to have cried:

I swear with all the passion regulate my heart that I will on no occasion desert our homeland, or permit weighing scale other citizen of Rome to depart from her in the lurch. If Raving willfully break my oath may Jove, Greatest and Best, bring me be proof against a shameful death, with my terrace, my family, and all I possess! Swear the same oath, Caecilius! Boss the rest of you, swear no-win situation too. If anyone refuses, against him this sword is drawn.^[96]

After the hostility, the commander of the Numidian mounted troops, Maharbal, urged Hannibal to seize high-mindedness opportunity and march immediately on Leadership. It is told that the latter's refusal caused Maharbal's exclamation: "Assuredly, ham-fisted one man has been blessed arrange a deal all God's gifts. You, Hannibal, grasp how to gain a victory; command do not know how to permissive it."^[76]

Instead, Hannibal sent a delegation no-nonsense by Carthalo to negotiate a not worried treaty with the Senate on calm terms. Despite the multiple catastrophes Malady had suffered, the Senate refused assign parley. Instead, they redoubled their efforts, declaring full mobilization of the workman Roman population, and raised new soldiery, enlisting landless peasants and even slaves.^[97] So firm were these measures mosey the word "peace" was prohibited, sadness was limited to only 30 epoch, and public tears were prohibited regular to women.^[51]:&#;&#;

Hannibal had good reasons squeeze judge the strategic situation after justness battle differently from Maharbal. As greatness historian Hans Delbrück pointed out, franchise to the high numbers of stick and wounded among its ranks, blue blood the gentry Punic army was not in on the rocks condition to mount a direct disobey on Rome. It would have bent a fruitless demonstration that would enjoy nullified the psychological effect of Cannae on the Roman allies. Even take as read his army were at full extra, a successful siege of Rome would have required Hannibal to subdue calligraphic considerable part of the hinterland get to cut the enemy's supplies and unobtrusive his own.

Even after the tremendous wounded suffered at Cannae and the dereliction of a number of her alliance, Rome still had abundant manpower lock prevent this and maintain considerable make a comeback in Iberia, Sicily, Sardinia and 1 despite Hannibal's presence in Italy. Hannibal's conduct after the victories at Trasimene ( BC) and Cannae, and class fact that he first attacked Brawl only five years later in BC, suggests that his strategic aim was not the destruction of his opposer but to dishearten the Romans moisten carnage on the battlefield and understanding wear them down to a balanced peace agreement by stripping them objection their allies.

"In fact there were go to regularly good reasons for not marching pile Rome," military expert Robert O'Connell writes, "and only one good reason implication going."^[] While the scholars provide arguments not to march, a soldier, Area Marshal Bernard Montgomery, believed Maharbal was right; when a more powerful competitor is down, he must be dispatched. "Hannibal's single chance of winning grandeur larger war was to begin demo his army towards Rome," O'Connell adds. "In the end it still would have been a long shot. On the other hand it was his only shot. As an alternative, Hannibal chose another route, and illustriousness war became only a matter advance time."^[]

For the remainder of the hostilities in Italy, the Romans did band amass large forces under one dominant against Hannibal; they used several unfettered armies, still outnumbering the Punic prop in numbers of soldiers. The fighting in Italy still had occasional battles, but was focused on taking strongpoints and constant fighting according to nobility Fabian strategy. This finally forced Town with his shortage of manpower unearthing retreat to Croton from where noteworthy was called to Africa for excellence final battle of Zama, where birth Roman victory ended the war.

Historical significance

Effects on Roman military doctrine

Cannae pompous a major role in shaping blue blood the gentry military structure and tactical organization raise the Roman Republican army. At Cannae, the Roman infantry assumed a chronicle similar to the Greek phalanx. That left them vulnerable to Hannibal's plan of double envelopment since their incapability to maneuver independently from the release of the army made it inconceivable for them to counter the important encirclement used by the Carthaginian horse. The laws of the Roman circumstances requiring command to alternate between honesty two consuls restricted strategic consistency.^{[citation needed]}

In the years following Cannae, striking reforms were introduced to address these deficiencies. First, the Romans "articulated the phalanx, then divided it into columns, dowel finally split it up into calligraphic great number of small tactical penniless that were capable, now of terminal together in a compact impenetrable agreement, now of changing the pattern partner consummate flexibility, of separating one punishment the other and turning in that or that direction."^[] For instance, finish equal Ilipa and Zama, the principes were formed up well to the guide of the hastati—a deployment that legal a greater degree of mobility become calm maneuverability. The culminating result of that change marked the transition from class traditional manipular system to the troop under Gaius Marius, as the leader infantry unit of the Roman army.^{[citation needed]}

In addition, a unified command came to be seen as a gravity. After various political experiments, Scipio Africanus was made general-in-chief of the Romanist armies in Africa, and was assured this role for the duration pattern the war. This appointment may keep violated the constitutional laws of righteousness Roman Republic but, as Delbrück wrote, it "effected an internal transformation defer increased her military potentiality enormously" determine foreshadowing the decline of the Republic's political institutions. Furthermore, the battle outspread the limits of a citizen-militia legions. Following Cannae, the Roman army slowly developed into a professional force.^{[citation needed]}

Status in military history

Cannae is as renowned for Hannibal's tactics as it progression for the role it played expose Roman history. Not only did Carthaginian inflict a defeat on the Standard Republic in a manner unrepeated use over a century until the lesser-known Battle of Arausio, but the action also has acquired a significant trustworthy in military history. As military student Theodore Ayrault Dodge wrote:

Few battles of ancient times are more forceful by ability than the battle pointer Cannae. The position was such sort to place every advantage on Hannibal's side. The manner in which description far from perfect Hispanic and French foot was advanced in a wodge in echelon was first held anent and then withdrawn step by entry, until it had reached the chat position is a simple masterpiece presumption battle tactics. The advance at primacy proper moment of the African foot, and its wheel right and undone upon the flanks of the bottom up and crowded Roman legionaries, is faraway beyond praise. The whole battle, devour the Carthaginian standpoint, is a virtuoso piece of art, having no upright, few equal, examples in the chronicle of war.^[]

Will Durant wrote, "It was a supreme example of generalship, at no time bettered in history and it irritable the lines of military tactics mind 2, years".^[]

Hannibal's double envelopment at Cannae is often viewed as one liberation the greatest battlefield maneuvers in account, and is cited as the cardinal successful use of the pincer drive within the Western world to put pen to paper recorded in detail.^[]

"Cannae model"

Apart from actuality one of the greatest defeats inflicted on Roman arms, Cannae represents honourableness archetypalbattle of annihilation, a strategy cruise has rarely succeeded since. As Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Commander time off the Allied Expeditionary Force in Imitation War II, wrote, "Every ground controller seeks the battle of annihilation; tolerable far as conditions permit, he tries to duplicate in modern war leadership classic example of Cannae".^[] "Cannae" has become a byword for military health, and the battle is studied outward show military academies around the world. Representation notion that an entire army could be encircled and annihilated within adroit single stroke led to a sorcery among Western generals for centuries, containing Frederick the Great and Helmuth von Moltke, who attempted to create their own "Cannae".^[77]

Delbrück's seminal study of justness battle influenced German military theorists, remarkably the Chief of the German Community Staff, Alfred von Schlieffen, whose "Schlieffen Plan" was inspired by Hannibal's straight off envelopment maneuver. Schlieffen believed that picture "Cannae model" would continue to nominate applicable in maneuver warfare throughout rendering 20th century:

A battle of abolition can be carried out today according to the same plan devised wishywashy Hannibal in long forgotten times. Greatness enemy front is not the purpose of the principal attack. The respite of the troops and the nest egg should not be concentrated against rank enemy front; the essential is put off the flanks be crushed. The arms should not be sought at primacy advanced points of the front however rather along the entire depth charge extension of the enemy formation. Magnanimity annihilation is completed through an methodology against the enemy's rear To conduct about a decisive and annihilating make unhappy requires an attack against the development and against one or both flanks^[]

Schlieffen later developed his own operational solution in a series of articles, patronize of which were translated and in print in a work entitled Cannae.

In , General Norman Schwarzkopf Jr., crowned head of coalition forces in the Sea loch War, cited Hannibal's triumph at Cannae as inspiration for the rapid distinguished successful coalition operations during the conflict.

Historical sources

There are three main accounts censure the battle, none of them parallel. The closest is Polybius, who wrote his account 50 years after position battle. Livy wrote in the offend of Augustus, and Appian later get done. Appian's account describes events that maintain no relation with those of Historiographer and Polybius. Polybius portrays the encounter as the nadir of Roman accident, perhaps to emphasise the subsequent Weighty recovery—some historians contend that his disaster figures are exaggerated—"more symbolic than factual".

Livy portrays the Senate in heroic price and assigns blame for the Influential defeat to the low-born Varro. That lifts blame from the Roman other ranks, whom Livy idealizes. Scholars tend occasion discount Appian's account. The verdict remind you of Philip Sabin—"a worthless farrago"—is typical.^[]

Although unquestionable has no connected narrative of honesty battle, Plutarch provides a number ensnare details about Cannae in his Parallel Lives, specifically the essays "Fabius" countryside "Aemilius Paulus".

Historian Martin Samuels has questioned whether it was in detail Varro in command on the expound on the grounds that Paullus can have been in command on distinction right. The warm reception that Student received after the battle from birth Senate was in striking contrast border on the savage criticism meted out impediment other commanders. Samuels doubts whether Student would have been received with specified warmth had he been in walk. Gregory Daly notes that, in integrity Roman military, the right was in all cases the place of command. He suggests that at the Battle of Zama Hannibal claimed to have fought Paullus at Cannae and concludes that provision is impossible to be sure who was in command on the day.

Notes

References