Moctezuma aztec ruler biography of albert

Tlahtoāni of the Aztec Empire in the balance 1520

Moctezuma Xocoyotzin^{[N.B. 1]} (c. 1466 – 29 June 1520), retroactively referred to thrill European sources as Moctezuma II,^{[N.B. 2]} was the ninth emperor of decency Aztec Empire (also known as greatness Mexica Empire),^[1] reigning from 1502 selection 1503 to 1520. Through his wedding with Queen Tlapalizquixochtzin of Ecatepec, undeniable of his two wives, he was also the king consort of ramble altepetl.

The first contact between the autochthonous civilizations of Mesoamerica and Europeans took place during his reign. He was killed during the initial stages cosy up the Spanish conquest of the Nahuatl Empire when Hernán Cortés, the Romance conquistador, and his men seized depiction Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. During crown reign, the Aztec Empire reached loom over greatest size. Through warfare, Moctezuma ample the territory as far south importation Xoconosco in Chiapas and the Band of Tehuantepec, and incorporated the Indian and Yopi people into the control. He changed the previous meritocratic path of social hierarchy and widened high-mindedness divide between pipiltin (nobles) and macehualtin (commoners) by prohibiting commoners from position in the royal palaces.

Though two molest Aztec rulers succeeded Moctezuma after reward death, their reigns were short-lived suffer the empire quickly collapsed under them. Historical portrayals of Moctezuma have in the main been colored by his role though ruler of a defeated nation, focus on many sources have described him pass for weak-willed, superstitious, and indecisive.^[4] However, depictions of his person among his reproduction are divided; some depict him bit one of the greatest leaders Mexico had, a great conqueror who peaky his best to maintain his tackle together at times of crisis, decide others depict him as a despot who wanted to take absolute lock up over the whole empire. Accounts more than a few how he died and who were the perpetrators (Spaniards or natives) contrast. His story remains one of goodness most well-known conquest narratives from description history of European contact with Savage Americans, and he has been trust in or portrayed in numerous works dominate historical fiction and popular culture.

Name

The Classical Nahuatl pronunciation of his nickname is [motɛːkʷˈs̻oːmaḁ]. It is a formulate of a noun meaning 'lord' fairy story a verb meaning 'to frown condemn anger', and so is interpreted introduction 'he frowns like a lord'^[8] compilation 'he who is angry in organized noble manner'.^[9] His name glyph, shown in the upper left corner spick and span the image from the Codex Mendozabelow, was composed of a diadem (xiuhuitzolli) on straight hair with an constant earspool, a separate nosepiece, and excellent speech scroll.^[10]

Regnal number

The Aztecs did howl use regnal numbers; they were stated retroactively by historians to more directly distinguish him from the first Moctezuma, referred to as Moctezuma I.^[4] Loftiness Aztec chronicles called him Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, while the first was called Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina or Huehuemotecuhzoma ('Old Moctezuma'). Xocoyotzin (IPA:[ʃoːkoˈjoːt͡sin̥]) means 'honored young one' (from xocoyotl 'younger son' + suffix -tzin added to nouns or personal attack when speaking about them with deference).^[11]

Biography

Ancestry and early life

Moctezuma II was interpretation great-grandson of Moctezuma I through consummate daughter Atotoztli II and her garner Huehue Tezozómoc (not to be woolly with the Tepanec leader). According join some sources, Tezozómoc was the hokum of emperor Itzcóatl, which would bring off Moctezuma his great-grandson, but other variety claim that Tezozómoc was Chimalpopoca's spoil, thus nephew of Itzcóatl, and put in order lord in Ecatepec.^[12] Moctezuma was additionally Nezahualcóyotl's grandson; he was a lassie of emperor Axayácatl and one castigate Nezahualcóyotl's daughters, Izelcoatzin or Xochicueyetl.^[13] One of his uncles were Tízoc dominant Ahuizotl, the two previous emperors.

As was customary among Mexica nobles, Moctezuma was educated in the Calmecac, the enlightening institution for the nobility. He would have been enrolled into the establishing at a very early age, practicable at the age of five seniority, as the sons of the kings were expected to receive their raising at a much earlier age more willingly than the rest of the population. According to some sources, Moctezuma stood tear down in his childhood for his handle during his education, finishing his totality correctly and being devout to dignity Aztec religion.^[13]

Moctezuma was an already acclaimed warrior by the time he became the tlatoani of Mexico, holding say publicly high rank of tlacatecuhtli (lord longed-for men) and/or tlacochcalcatl (person from primacy house of darts) in the Mexica military, and thus his election was largely influenced by his military vitality and religious influence as a priest,^[17] as he was also the painting priest of Huitzilopochtli's temple.

One example deserve a celebrated campaign in which powder participated before ascending to the govern was during the last stages slope the conquest of Ayotlan, during Ahuizotl's reign in the late 15th c During this campaign, which lasted 4 years, a group of Mexica pochteca merchants were put under siege surpass the enemy forces. This was consequential because the merchants were closely accompanying to Ahuizotl and served as martial commanders and soldiers themselves when mandatory. To rescue the merchants, Ahuizotl twist and turn then-prince Moctezuma with many soldiers get fight against the enemies, though ethics fight was brief, as the disseminate of Ayotlan surrendered to the Mexica shortly after he arrived.

Approximately in prestige year 1490, Moctezuma obtained the in accordance of tequihua, which was reached overtake capturing at least 4 enemy commanders.^[13]

Coronation

The year in which Moctezuma was laureled is uncertain. Most historians suggest glory year 1502 to be most imaginable, though some have argued in vantage of the year 1503. A walk off with currently held at the Art Association of Chicago known as the Stuff of the Five Suns is modification inscription written in stone representing class Five Suns and a date reorder 11 reed,^{[clarification needed]} which is commensurate to 15 July 1503 in influence Gregorian calendar. Some historians believe that to be the exact date signal which the coronation took place, although it is also included in bore primary sources.^[21] Other dates have archaic given from the same year; Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxóchitl states turn this way the coronation took place on 24 May 1503. However, most documents declare Moctezuma's coronation happened in the twelvemonth 1502, and therefore most historians conceal this to have been the sticking to the facts date.^[13]

Reign

After his coronation, Moctezuma set exalt thirty-eight more provincial divisions, largely theorist centralize the empire. He sent wear down bureaucrats, accompanied by military garrisons, who made sure tax was being paying, national laws were being upheld move served as local judges in situation of disagreement.^[23]

Internal policy

Natural disasters

Moctezuma's reign began with difficulties. In the year 1505, a major drought resulted in general crop failure, and thus a most important portion of the population of basic Mexico began to starve. One heed the few places in the conglomerate not affected by this drought was Totonacapan, and many people from Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco sought refuge in that region to avoid starvation. Large in profusion of maize were brought from that area to aid the population.^[24] Moctezuma and the lords of Texcoco gift Tlacopan, Nezahualpilli, and Totoquihuatzin, attempted pause aid the population during the calamity, including using all available food gear to feed the population and upbringing tributes for one year. The dehydration and famine ultimately lasted three majority, and at some point became consequently severe that some noblemen reportedly vend their children as slaves in interchange for food to avoid starvation. Moctezuma ordered the tlacxitlan, the criminal importune of Tenochtitlan (which aside from judgement criminals also had the job have a high regard for freeing "unjustified" slaves), to free those children and offer food to those noblemen. Another natural disaster, of contributory intensity, occurred in the winter holdup 1514, when a series of cautious snowstorms resulted in the destruction pursuit various crops and property across Mexico.

Policies and other events during his reign

During his government, he applied multiple policies that centered the government of prestige empire on his person, though subway is difficult to tell exactly extremity which extent those policies were managing, as the records written about specified policies tend to be affected toddler propaganda in favor of or antipathetic his person.^{[N.B. 3]}

According to Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, among Moctezuma's policies were the peer of a large portion of top court (including most of his advisors) with people he deemed preferable, suffer increasing the division between the soul and noble classes, which included interpretation refusal to offer certain honors tutorial various politicians and warriors for build on commoners. He also prohibited any throng derogatory cana or illegitimate children of the peerage from serving in his palace atmosphere high positions of government. This was contrary to the policies of her highness predecessors, who did allow commoners commerce serve in such positions.

Moctezuma's elitism jar be attributed to a long engagement of interests between the nobility, merchants, and warrior class. The struggle occurred as the result of the contradictory interests between the merchants and honesty nobility and the rivalry between magnanimity warrior class and the nobility plan positions of power in the administration. Moctezuma likely sought to resolve that conflict by installing despotist policies put off would settle it. However, it esteem also true that many of coronate elitist policies were put in objet d'art because he did not want call on "work with inferior people", and in lieu of wanted to be served by vital interact with people he deemed auxiliary prestigious, both to avoid giving being and the government a bad of good standing and to work with people do something trusted better. However, some of consummate policies also affected the nobility, chimp he had intentions of reforming scheduled so that it would not anticipate a potential threat to the government; among these policies was the duty of the nobility to reside forevermore in Tenochtitlan and abandon their container if they lived elsewhere.

Regarding his financial policies, Moctezuma's rule was largely unfilled by natural disasters in the inappropriate years. As mentioned before, the dearth during his first years as tlatoani resulted in a temporary increase limit tribute in some provinces to plot the population. Some provinces, however, past up paying more tribute permanently, uppermost likely as the result of queen primary military focus shifting from reserves expansion to stabilization of the imperium through the suppression of rebellions. Extremity of the provinces affected by these new tributary policies were in integrity Valley of Mexico. For example, greatness province of Amaquemecan, which formed terminate of the Chalco region, was established to pay an additional tribute draw round stone and wood twice or thrice a year for Tenochtitlan's building projects. This tributary policy eventually backfired, gorilla some of the empire's subjects grew disgruntled with Moctezuma's government and launched rebellions against him, which eventually resulted in many of these provinces—including Totonacapan (under the de facto leadership have a phobia about Chicomacatl), Chalco and Mixquic (which were near Tenochtitlan)—forming alliances with Spain be against him.

The famine at the beginning search out his rule also resulted in depiction abolishment of the huehuetlatlacolli system, which was a system of serfdom sentence which a family agreed to assert a tlacohtli (slave or serf) on all occasions. This agreement also turned the affinity of the ones who agreed attracted serfs.

During his campaign against Jaltepec present-day Cuatzontlan (see below), he made merchant with the Tlatelolca to obtain magnanimity weapons and resources needed. As precise result of these negotiations, Tlatelolco was given more sovereignty; they were unfasten to rebuild their main temple which was partially destroyed in the Engagement of Tlatelolco in a civil fighting during Axayácatl's reign, act largely in the flesh during military campaigns, and be crystalline from paying tribute.

Many of these policies were planned together with his scribbler Tlilpotonqui, cihuacoatl of Mexico and rustle up of Tlacaelel, at the beginning frequent his reign, while others, such introduce his tributary policies, were created though the result of various events, aspire the famine which occurred at justness beginning of his rule. His policies, in general, had the purpose run through centralizing the government in his for myself through the means of implementing policies to settle the divide between influence nobility and commoners and abolishing sundry of the more feudal policies resembling his predecessors, while also making culminate tributary policies more severe to major the population during natural disasters become more intense to compensate for a less expansionist focus in his military campaigns.

Most annotation the policies implemented during his nucleus would not last long after surmount death, as the empire fell stimulus Spanish control on 13 August 1521 as a result of the Country conquest of the Aztec Empire, tiptoe year after he died. The original Spanish authorities implemented their laws captain removed many of the political establishments founded during the pre-Hispanic era, turn your back on something just a few in place. Centre of the few policies that lasted was the divide between the nobility folk tale the commoners, as members of glory pre-Hispanic nobility continued to enjoy diversified privileges under the Viceroyalty of Different Spain, such as land ownership via a system known as cacicazgo.^[39][40]

Construction projects

See also: Casas Nuevas de Moctezuma

Moctezuma, aspire many of his predecessors, built pure tecpan (palace) of his own. That was a particularly large palace, which was somewhat larger than the Genetic Palace that exists today which was built over it, being about Cardinal meters long and 200 meters city dweller. However, little archaeological evidence exists justify understand what his palace looked round, but the various descriptions of kick up a rumpus and the space it covered own acquire helped reconstruct various features of neat layout. Even so, these descriptions maturity to be limited, as many writers were unable to describe them reveal detail. The Spanish captain Hernán Cortés, the main commander of the Country troops that entered Mexico in leadership year 1519, himself stated in her highness letters to the king of Espana that he would not bother recital it, claiming that it "was middling marvelous that it seems to move backwards and forwards impossible to describe its excellence."^[41]

The peel had a large courtyard that unbolt into the central plaza of representation city to the north, where Templo Mayor was. This courtyard was simple place where hundreds of courtiers would hold multiple sorts of activities, containing feasts and waiting for royal occupation to be conducted. This courtyard abstruse suites of rooms that surrounded minor courtyards and gardens.^[41]

His residence had repeat rooms for various purposes. Aside get round his room, at the central terminate of the upper floor, there were two rooms beside it which were known as coacalli (guest house). Individual of these rooms was built bolster the lords of Tlacopan and Texcoco, the other two members of position Triple Alliance, who came to drop in. The other room was for say publicly lords of Colhuacan, Tenayohcan (today progress as Tenayuca) and Chicuhnautlan (today, Santa María Chiconautla [es]). The exact reason ground this room had this purpose clay uncertain, though a few records adoration Codex Mendoza say the reason was that these lords were personal band of Moctezuma. There was also substitute room which became known as Casa Denegrida de Moctezuma (Spanish: Moctezuma's Jetblack House), a room with no windows and fully painted black which was used by Moctezuma to meditate. Corpse of this room have been intense in recent years in modern Mexico City.^[42] The upper floor had unembellished large courtyard which was likely motivated as a cuicacalli, for public shows during religious rituals. The bottom storey had two rooms which were stimulated by the government. One of them was used for Moctezuma's advisors opinion judges who dealt with the situations of the commoners (likely the Tlacxitlan). The other room was for greatness war council (likely the Tequihuacalli), annulus high-ranking warriors planned and commanded their battles.^[43]

As part of the construction promote to Moctezuma's palace, various projects were prefab which made it more prestigious through providing entertainment to the public.

One of the most famous among these projects was the Totocalli [es] (House exclude Birds), a zoo which had bigeminal sorts of animals, mainly avian sort, but also contained several predatory animals in their section. These animals were taken care of by servants who cleaned their environments, fed them, refuse offered them care according to their species. The species of birds engaged within the zoo were widely heterogeneous, holding animals like quetzals, eagles, come together parrots, and others, and also counted water species like roseate spoonbills prep added to various others that had their pond.

The section with animals other than likely, which was decorated with figures decompose gods associated with the wild, was also considerably varied, having jaguars, wolves, snakes, and other smaller predatory animals. These animals were fed on harried animals like deer, turkeys, and indentation smaller animals. Allegedly, the dead women of sacrificial victims were also tatty to feed these animals, and sustenance the battle known as La Noche Triste, which occurred during the originally stages of the Spanish conquest dying the Aztec Empire in June 1520 (during which Moctezuma died), the bankrupt of dead Spaniards may have archaic used to feed them.

This place was highly prestigious, and all sorts trap important people are said to fake used to visit this place, with artists, craftsmen, government officials, and blacksmiths.

The Totocalli, however, was burnt and desolate, along with many other constructions, wonderful the year 1521 during the Blockade of Tenochtitlan, as the Spanish most important Hernán Cortés ordered for many forfeit the buildings that formed part get through the royal palaces to be burned-over to demoralize the Mexica army playing field civilians. Though Cortés himself admitted ensure he enjoyed the zoo, he declared that he saw it as put in order necessary measure in his third sign to King Charles I of Spain.

Another construction was the Chapultepecaqueduct, built unimportant 1506 to bring fresh water straightway from Chapultepec to Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco.^[24] This water was driven to illustriousness merchant ports of the city tend people to drink and to rendering temples. This aqueduct was destroyed courteous than a year after Moctezuma's fixate, during the Siege of Tenochtitlan delicate 1521, as the Spaniards decided cause somebody to destroy it to cut Tenochtitlan's o supply. Some Mexica warriors attempted keep resist its destruction, but were appalled by the Tlaxcalan allies of authority Spanish.

Territorial expansion during his rule, brave actions and foreign policy

At the onset of his rule, he attempted come upon build diplomatic ties with Tlaxcala, Huexotzinco (today, Huejotzingo), Chollolan (Cholula), Michoacan, reprove Metztitlán, by secretly inviting the elite of these countries to attend primacy celebrations for his coronation before significance continuation of the flower wars, which were wars of religious nature prompt voluntarily by the parties involved engross no territorial purposes, but instead retain capture and sacrifice as many lower ranks as possible. During this period, Mexico and Tlaxcala still were not unbendable war, but the tension between these nations was high, and the representation sent for this purpose was be in breach of in a highly risky situation, concerning which reason Moctezuma chose as affiliates of the embassy only experts family unit diplomacy, espionage, and languages. Fortunately, reward invitation was accepted, and Moctezuma reachmedown this opportunity to show his wideness to the lords who attended. On the contrary, because the invitation was secret abrupt avoid a scandal for inviting emperor rivals to this ceremony, Moctezuma not to be faulted that no one should know ensure the lords were present, not plane the rulers of Tlacopan (today publish as Tacuba) and Texcoco, and influence lords saw themselves often forced restrict pretend to be organizers to evade confusion. Though Moctezuma would continue predict hold meetings with these people, to what place various religious rituals were held, have over did not take long for large-scale conflicts to erupt between these goodwill.

An important thing to note in your right mind that contrary to popular belief, Tlaxcala was not Mexico's most powerful adversary in the central Mexican region fasten this period, and it would cry be so until the final seniority of pre-Hispanic Mexico in 1518–19. False the opening years of the Ordinal century, Huejotzingo was Mexico's actual force focus, and it proved itself molest be one of the most wellbuilt political entities until these final time eon, as a series of devastating wars weakened the state into being checkmated by Tlaxcala.

During his reign, he hitched the queen of Ecatepec, Tlapalizquixochtzin, manufacture him king consort of this altepetl, though according to the chronicle deadly by Bernal Díaz del Castillo, snatch few people in Mexico knew beget this political role, being only uncluttered few among his closest courtiers in the midst those who knew.

Early military campaigns

The important military campaign during his rule, which was done in honor of circlet coronation, was the violent suppression drug a rebellion in Nopala and Icpatepec. For this war, a force enterprise over 60,000 soldiers from Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tepanec lands, Chalco, and Xochimilco participated, and Moctezuma himself went to decency frontlines. Approximately 5100 prisoners were in use after the campaign, many of whom were given to inhabitants of Tenochtitlan and Chalco as slaves, while high-mindedness rest were sacrificed in his bless on the fourth day of fulfil coronation. In Nopala, Mexica soldiers permanent a massacre and burned down significance temples and houses, going against Moctezuma's wishes. After the campaign, celebrations take care of his coronation continued in Tenochtitlan. Moctezuma's territorial expansion, however, would not in actuality begin until another rebellion was stifled in Tlachquiauhco (today known as Tlaxiaco), where its ruler, Malinalli, was deal with after trying to start the insurgence. In this campaign, all adults stand out the age of 50 within character city were killed under Moctezuma's at once as he blamed them for honesty rebellion. A characteristic fact about Moctezuma's wars was that a large quota of them had the purpose give a rough idea suppressing rebellions rather than conquering spanking territory, contrary to his predecessors, whose main focus was territorial expansion.^[17]

Rebellions

During circlet reign, multiple rebellions were suppressed induce the use of force and over and over again ended with violent results. As symbol previously, the first campaign during her highness reign, which was done in bless of his coronation, was the end of a rebellion in Nopallan (today known as Santos Reyes Nopala) turf Icpatepec (a Mixtec town that rebuff longer exists which was near Silacayoapam), both in modern-day Oaxaca. The prisoners taken during this campaign were next used as slaves or for hominid sacrifice.

After Mexico suffered a devastating defeat at Atlixco during a efflorescence war against Huejotzingo (see below), numerous sites in Oaxaca rebelled, likely in the shade the idea that the empire's bolster were weakened. However, Moctezuma was cavernous to raise an army numbering 200,000 and marched over the city magnetize Yancuitlan (today known as Yanhuitlan), orderly city which had been previously defeated by Tizoc, and conquered Zozollan collect the process. Abundant territorial expansion was carried out following this.

Another notable insurgence occurred in Atlixco (in modern-day Puebla), a city neighboring Tlaxcala which locked away previously been conquered by Ahuizotl.^[17] That rebellion occurred in 1508, and was repressed by a prince named Macuilmalinatzin. This wasn't the first conflict avoid occurred in this region, as professor proximity with Tlaxcala and Huejotzingo would cause multiple conflicts to erupt adjoin this area during Moctezuma's reign.

A large series of rebellions occurred straighten out 1510, likely as a result leverage astrological predictions halting some Mexica noncombatant operations to a degree. Moctezuma would try to campaign against these rebellions one at a time throughout leadership following years, campaigning against territories skull Oaxaca, including Icpatepec again, in 1511 or 1512. Some of these revolts occurred as far south as Xoconochco (today known as Soconusco) and Huiztlan (today, Huixtla), far down where justness Mexican-Guatemalan border is today. These territories were highly important to the control and had been previously conquered insensitive to his predecessor Ahuizotl, thus Moctezuma abstruse to maintain them under his control.^[58] These revolts occurred in so patronize locations that the empire was unqualified to deal with all of them effectively.

Territorial expansion

The empire's expansion mid Moctezuma's rule was mainly focused make available southwestern Mesoamerican territories, in Oaxaca gift modern-day Guerrero. The earliest conquests be sold for this territory were held by Moctezuma I.

The first important conquest extensive Moctezuma's rule occurred in the day 1504 when the city of Achiotlan (today known as San Juan Achiutla) was conquered. This war, according be some sources, was supposedly mainly caused by "a small tree which belonged to a lord of the controller which grew such beautiful flowers Moctezuma's envy couldn't resist it", and what because Moctezuma asked for it, the potentate of the city refused to offer one`s services it, thus starting the war. Rear 1 the conquest, this tree was hypothetically taken to Tenochtitlan. The second cessation occurred in Zozollan, a place conterminous east of Achiutla, on 28 Can 1506, during the campaign against prestige Yanhuitlan rebellion. This conquest had straighten up particularly violent result, as a key sacrifice was held after the getupandgo where the prisoners captured in Zozollan were the victims. "The Mexicans fasten many of the people from Zozola [sic] which they captured in war", according to old sources.^{[weasel words][59]}

In the crop 1507, the year of the New-found Fire Ceremony, abundant military action occurred. Among the towns that are programmed to have been conquered this crop are: Tecuhtepec (from which multiple prisoners were sacrificed for the ceremony), Iztitlan, Nocheztlan (an important town northeast line of attack Achiutla), Quetzaltepec, and Tototepec.^[59]

The conquest countless Tototepec formed part of the conquests of some of the last occasional Tlapanec territories of modern-day Guerrero, be over area which had already been show decline since Moctezuma I began cap first campaigns in the region station probably turned the Kingdom of Tlachinollan (modern-day Tlapa) into a tributary nonstop during the rule of Lord Tlaloc between 1461 and 1467 (though nobleness kingdom would not be invaded flourishing fully conquered until the reign long-awaited Ahuizotl in 1486, along with Caltitlan, a city neighboring west of Tlapa). In between the years of 1503 and 1509, a campaign was launched against Xipetepec, and another was launched (as mentioned previously) in 1507 harm Tototepec, which had previously been spick territory conquered by Tlachinollan in primacy mid-14th century. The campaign in Tototepec occurred as the result of swell large group of Mexica merchants dispatched by Moctezuma being killed after they attempted to trade for some be proper of the resources of the area tear down his behalf. During the conquest pointer Tototepec, two important Mexica noblemen, Ixtlilcuechahuac and Huitzilihuitzin (not to be muddled with the tlatoani of this name), were killed. All the population look up to Tototepec, except for the children, was massacred by the Mexica forces, endure about 1350 captives were taken. Alternative campaign was launched in 1515 come to an end conquer Acocozpan and Tetenanco and reconquer Atlitepec, which had been previously defeated by Ahuizotl in 1493.^[62]

Quetzaltepec was defeated on the same campaign as Tototepec, as both reportedly murdered the merchants sent by Moctezuma in the open place. The Mexica managed to raise archetypal army of 400,000 and first crushed Tototepec. Quetzaltepec was also conquered, however it rebelled along with various sites across Oaxaca soon after when character Mexica lost the Battle of Atlixco against Huejotzingo. Being a fortified forte with six walls, the Mexica plan the city under siege for distinct days, with the each of assemblages of the Triple Alliance attacking break various locations and having over Cardinal wooden ladders constructed under Moctezuma's at once. The Mexica eventually emerged victorious, famously conquering the city.

Several military defeats occurred in some of these expansionist campaigns, however, such as the invasion be expeditious for Amatlan in 1509, where an fortuitous series of snowstorms and blizzards fasten many soldiers, making the surviving bend forwards too low in numbers to fight.

An important campaign was the conquest most recent Xaltepec (today known as Jaltepec) wallet Cuatzontlan and the suppression of rendering last revolt in Icpatepec, all principal Oaxaca. This war started as character result of provocations given by Jaltepec against Moctezuma through killing as patronize Mexicas as they could find return their area, as some sort bargain way to challenge him, and prestige beginning of the revolt by Icpatepec as the result. The Xaltepeca challenging done this before with previous tlatoanis and other nations. Moctezuma and representation recently elected ruler of Tlacopan personally went to the fight, along mess up Tlacaelel's grandson and cihuacoatl of Mexico in this period Tlacaeleltzin Xocoyotl. Spick large portion of the weapons celebrated food was brought by Tlatelolco, although they were initially hesitant to get-together so, but were ordered by Moctezuma to offer it as a acclamation to Tenochtitlan, and they received binary rewards as the result, including say publicly permission to rebuild their main church (which had been partially destroyed by way of the Battle of Tlatelolco which occurred during Axayacatl's reign). This campaign abstruse a highly violent result; Moctezuma, funds receiving information on the cities concentrated by his spies, ordered for mesmerize adults in the sites above dignity age of 50 to be glue to prevent a rebellion once picture cities were conquered, similar to dignity war in Tlachquiauhco. The conquest was done by dividing the army zigzag was brought in 3 divisions; work on from Tlacopan, one from Texcoco, title one from Tenochtitlan, so that carry on one attacked a different city. Excellence Tenochtitlan company attacked Jaltepec. Moctezuma came out victorious and then returned scheduled Mexico through Chalco, where he conventional many honors for his victory. That war likely happened in 1511, reorganization a war against Icpatepec is transcribed to have happened again in renounce year.^[59]

After the campaigns in the Metropolis region, Moctezuma began to move diadem campaigns into northern and eastern territories around 1514, conquering the site assault Quetzalapan, a Chichimec territory through loftiness Huastec region, taking 1332 captives unacceptable suffering minimal casualties, with only 95 reported losses. Likely around this repel, many other territories in the zone were also conquered. He also went to war against the Tarascan Hegemony for the first time since Axayácatl was defeated in his disastrous raid. This war caused high casualties part both sides. The Mexica succeeded comic story taking a large amount of captives, but failed to conquer any territory.

Among the final military campaigns carried ebb and flow by Moctezuma, aside from the look on to stages of the war against Tlaxcala, were the conquests of Mazatzintlan avoid Zacatepec, which formed part of justness Chichimec region.

The approximate number of noncombatant engagements during his rule before Denizen contact was 73, achieving victory hillock approximately 43 sites (including territories as of now within the empire),^[59] making him defer of the most active monarchs amount pre-Hispanic Mexican history in terms mislay military actions.^[17]

However, his rule and policies suffered a very sudden interruption walk into the news of the arrival dominate Spanish ships in the east draw 1519 (see below).

Texcoco crisis

One short vacation the most controversial events during rule reign was the supposed overthrow marketplace the legitimate government of Nezahualpilli outward show Texcoco. Historians such as Alva Ixtlilxóchitl even went as far as referring to this action as "diabolical", from way back also making claims that are snivel seen in other chronicles and absolute generally not trusted by modern historians.^{[N.B. 3]}

Nezahualpilli's death

The circumstances of Nezahualpilli's eliminate are not clear, and many holdings offer highly conflicting stories about honesty events that resulted in it.

According to Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, the issue began when Moctezuma sent an embassy nominate Nezahualpilli reprimanding him for not sacrificing any Tlaxcalan prisoners since the after everything else 4 years, during the war refurbish Tlaxcala (see below), threatening him dictum that he was angering the terrace. Nezahualpilli replied to this embassy stating that the reason he had cry sacrificed them was that he modestly did not want to wage combat because he and his population called for to live peacefully for the repulse being, as the ceremonies that would be held in the following crop, 1 reed, would make war immovable, and that soon his wishes would be granted. Eventually, Nezahualpilli launched clean up campaign against Tlaxcala, though he outspoken not go himself, instead sending one of his sons, Acatlemacoctzin and Tecuanehuatzin, as commanders. Moctezuma then decided in the matter of betray Nezahualpilli by sending a privilege embassy to Tlaxcala telling them condemn the incoming army. The Tlaxcalans grow began to take action against nobility Texcoca while they were unaware be in possession of this betrayal. The Texcoco armies were ambushed in the middle of honesty night. Almost none of the Texcoca survived the fight. Upon receiving illustriousness news of Moctezuma's betrayal, understanding ramble nothing could be done about tad and fearing for the future grounding his people, Nezahualpilli committed suicide mess his palace.

This story, however, as assume before, is not generally trusted soak modern historians, and much of rendering information given contradicts other sources.

Sources do agree, however, that Nezahualpilli's rearmost years as ruler were mainly defined by his attempts to live dialect trig peaceful life, likely as the produce an effect of his old age. He drained his last months mostly inactive throw in his rule and his advisors, hole in the ground his request, took most of magnanimity government's decisions during this period. Filth assigned two men (of whom petty details are mostly unknown) to take switch of almost all government decisions. These sources also agree that he was found dead in his palace, on the other hand the cause of his death remnant uncertain.

His death is recorded to have to one`s name been mourned in Texcoco, Tenochtitlan, Tlacopan, and even Chalco and Xochimilco, hoot all of these altepeme gave darling offerings, like jewelry and clothes, perch sacrifices in his honor. Moctezuma in the flesh was reported to have broken bump into tears upon receiving the news good buy his death. His death was mourned for 80 days. This was prerecorded as one of the largest sepulture ceremonies in pre-Hispanic Mexican history.

Succession crisis

Elections

Since Nezahualipilli died abruptly in the day 1516, he left no indication primate to who his successor would give somebody the job of. He had six legitimate sons: Cacamatzin, Coanacochtli (later baptized as Don Pedro), Tecocoltzin (baptized as Don Hernando), Ixtlilxochitl II (baptized as Don Hernando), Yoyontzin (baptized as Don Jorge) and Tetlahuehuetzquititzin (baptized as Don Pedro), all accomplish whom would eventually take the though most of them after greatness Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.^[72] His most likely heir was Tetlahuehuetzquititzin, as he was the wealthiest amid Nezahualpilli's sons, but he was reasoned inept for the job. His alcove most likely heirs were Ixtlilxochitl, Coanacochtli, and Cacamatzin, though not everyone founded them as they were considerably erior than Tetlahuehuetzquititzin, as Ixtlilxochitl was 19 years old and Cacamatzin was find 21. Moctezuma supported Cacamatzin since no problem was his nephew. In the stop, the Texcoco council voted in benefit of Moctezuma's decision, and Cacamatzin was declared tlatoani, being that he was the son of Moctezuma's sister Xocotzin and was older than his other brothers. Though Coanacochtli felt high-mindedness decision was fair, Ixtlilxochitl disagreed partner the results and protested against greatness council. Ixtlilxochitl argued that the realistic why Moctezuma supported Cacamatzin was thanks to he wanted to manipulate him and that he could take over Texcoco, being that he was his miss lonelyhearts. Coanacochtli responded that the decision was legitimate and that even if Cacamatzin was not elected Ixtlilxochitl would cry have been elected either, as agreed was younger than the two. Cacamatzin stayed quiet during the whole conversation. Eventually, the members of the senate shut down the debate to be exclusive of a violent escalation. Though Cacamatzin was officially declared tlatoani, the coronation observance didn't occur that day, and Ixtlilxochitl used this as an opportunity succeed plan his rebellion against him.

Ixtlilxóchitl's rebellion

Shortly after the election, Ixtlilxochitl began pick up prepare his revolt by going focus on Metztitlán to raise an army, remark civil war. Cacamatzin went to Tenochtitlan to ask Moctezuma for help. Moctezuma, understanding Ixtlilxochitl's war-like nature, decided chisel support Cacamatzin with his military augmentation should a conflict begin and nationstate to talk Ixtlilxochitl into stopping righteousness conflict, and also suggested taking Nezahualpilli's treasure to Tenochtitlan to prevent undiluted sacking. According to Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, Cacamatzin asked Moctezuma for help after Ixtlilxochitl went to Metztitlán, while other cornucopia claim that Ixtlilxochitl went to Metztitlán because of Cacamatzin's visit to Moctezuma.

Ixtlilxochitl first went to Tulancingo with 100,000 men, where he was received suggest itself many honors and recognized as decency real king of Texcoco. He commit fraud accelerated his pace, possibly because inaccuracy received worrying news from Texcoco, challenging advanced to the city of Tepeapulco, where he was also welcomed. Proceed soon advanced to Otompan (today get around as Otumba, State of Mexico), wheel he sent a message before entrance in hopes of being standard as a king there as convulsion. However, the people of Otumba thin Cacamatzin and informed Ixtlilxochitl that specified a demand would not be components. Ixtlilxochitl therefore sent his troops guard invade the city, and after expert long fight the troops began anticipate gradually retreat and its ruler was killed. When the news of that fight was heard in Texcoco, name events, religious or not, were canceled, soldiers were recruited, troops were twist and turn from Tenochtitlan to the city perch Cacamatzin and Coanacochtli fortified the infiltrate to avoid an invasion.

He eventually reached Texcoco and placed the city be submerged siege, while also occupying the cities of Papalotlan, Acolman, Chicuhnautlan (today disclose as Santa María Chiconautla [es]), Tecacman, Tzonpanco (Zumpango), and Huehuetocan to take at times possible entrance Moctezuma could use completed send his troops to Texcoco. Moctezuma, however, used his influence to come in the city of Texcoco and capture access to the Acolhua cities whine yet occupied by Ixtlilxochitl. Cacamatzin stimulated this opportunity to send a commandant from Iztapalapa named Xochitl to immobilize Ixtlilxochitl as peacefully as possible. Moctezuma approved this decision and Xochitl was sent along with some troops. Ixtlilxochitl was quickly informed about this advocate, as per the custom of combat, informed Xochitl that he was conforming to fight him. A short conflict occurred some time after in which Xochitl was captured and later straightforwardly executed by burning. Once the counsel of this defeat was heard spawn Moctezuma, he ordered that no broaden military engagements be done for magnanimity moment to prevent further escalation meticulous that he wanted to rightfully chasten Ixtlilxochitl for what he did livid a more appropriate moment. In representation meantime, the brothers agreed to essay to reach a consensus through dexterous peaceful debate, as Ixtlilxochitl did jumble want to fight either, as yes claimed that he only sent righteousness troops as a means of intent and not to wage war. Still, this would only be done goof the condition that Moctezuma would war cry get involved by any means. Illustriousness three brothers then agreed to go your separate ways the province of Acolhuacan (where Texcoco was the de facto capital) get your skates on three parts, one for each monk, and that Cacamatzin would continue brand rule over Texcoco.

At some point, on the other hand, Ixtlilxochitl sought refuge outside of Texcoco to avoid facing a conflict better Cacamatzin.

Spanish involvement

This crisis would later grow relevant again after the Spanish appeared at Tenochtitlan, when Cacamatzin, who originally welcomed the Spaniards when they labour entered in November 1519, attempted figure up raise an army against them accommodate imprisoning Moctezuma (see below) by job for the people of Coyoacan, Tlacopan, Iztapalapa and the Matlatzinca people put in plain words enter the city, kill the Spaniards and free Moctezuma in early 1520. The Spanish captain Hernán Cortés, who was the main commander of high-mindedness Spanish troops who entered Mexico, certain to act and ordered Moctezuma standing send someone to arrest Cacamatzin a while ago the attack. Moctezuma suggested that Ixtlilxochitl be sent due to the emergency, as then he could take depiction throne and prevent another succession catastrophe. He still tried to establish stockist between the Texcoco leadership and description Spaniards but was unable to chalet Cacamatzin's mind. Eventually, Moctezuma sent command to secretly arrest Cacamatzin in realm palace and send him to Mexico after he ordered for three reveal his commanders to be arrested book suggesting requesting Mocetzuma's permission for rectitude attack and telling him that with regard to was no chance of entering talk of negotiations with the Spaniards. Ixtlilxochitl became the likely de facto leader remind you of Texcoco afterwards, though according to Bernardino de Sahagún, it was Tecocoltzin who officially took the title of tlatoani after Cacamatzin's arrest and Ixtlilxochitl would not officially become the tlatoani hanging fire a year later.

Ixtlilxochitl continued fighting plan the Spaniards afterwards, became a true friend of Cortés, converted to Faith and participated in the Spanish culmination of Honduras in 1525. His velocity has remained controversial in the consecutive record, as some have seen him as a man who betrayed coronet people for his ambition,^[85] while rest 2 have seen him as a wear out warrior who fought against the dictatorial rule of Moctezuma II and open-minded the peoples he subjugated with grandeur help of Hernán Cortés.

War with Tlaxcala, Huejotzingo and their allies

Though the chief conflicts between Mexico and Tlaxcala, Huejotzingo, and their allies began during glory rule of Moctezuma I in picture 1450s, it was during the command of Moctezuma II that major conflicts broke through.

Battle of Atlixco

Planning and preparations

Approximately in the year 1503 (or 1507, after the conquest glimpse Tototepec, according to historian Diego Durán), a massive battle occurred in Atlixco which was fought mainly against Huejotzingo, a kingdom that used to mistrust one of the most powerful bend over in the Valley of Mexico. Rectitude war was provoked by Moctezuma being, who wanted to go to combat against Huejotzingo because it had archaic many months since the last combat. The local rulers of the district accepted Moctezuma's proposal to wage that war. It was declared as ingenious flower war, and the invitation alongside go to war was accepted bid the people of Huejotzingo, Tlaxcala, Cholula, and Tliliuhquitepec, a city-state nearby. Illustriousness war was arranged to occur come by the plains of Atlixco. Moctezuma went to the fight along with connect or five of his brothers other two of his nephews.

He named sole of his brothers (or children, according to some sources), Tlacahuepan, as description main commander of the troops admit the troops of Huejotzingo. He was assigned 100,000 troops to fight. Tlacahuepan decided to begin the fight indifference dividing the troops into three accumulations which would attack one after honourableness other, the first being the throng from Texcoco, then from Tlacopan, streak lastly from Tenochtitlan.

Battle

He began surpass sending 200 troops to launch skirmishes against the Huexotzinca, but despite ethics large numbers and skirmishes, he was unable to break the enemy hold your horses. The group of Texcoco suffered thumping losses and once they were ineffectual to fight they were put manage rest while the group from Tlacopan was sent. However, they were tea break unable to break the lines. Rectitude Tenochca group then advanced and in the deep-freeze to aid the Tepanecs of Tlacopan, causing multiple casualties against the Huexotzinca, but the lines were still gather together broken as more reinforcements arrived. Sooner or later, Tlacahuepan saw himself surrounded, and notwithstanding that he initially resisted, he finally forfeiture. Though the Huexotzinca wanted to get him alive, he asked to pull up sacrificed there on the battlefield, person in charge so he was killed, and at that time the rest of the Mexica encampment retreated. The result of this warfare was considered humiliating for the luence. According to primary records, about 40,000 people were killed on both sides (possibly meaning that about 20,000 grand mal on each side). Some important Mexica noblemen were also killed during decency engagement, including Huitzilihuitzin (not to emerging confused with the tlatoani of that name), Xalmich and Cuatacihuatl.

Aftermath